According
to Gunawardana (1979:170):"The Buddhist tradition placed great emphasis on
the importance of the king as a leader of men. The stability of the social
system as well as the proper functioning of the whole universe depend on the
conduct of the king". This essay
describes two ideal leadership types, the Cakkavatti
and Bodhisattva kings, from the
Buddhist literature. Each of these
Buddhist kings will be shown to have unique ethical approaches to the issue of
wealth. Following a general discussion of
wealth from the Buddhist perspective, the Cakkavatti
and Bodhisattva leadership types will be argued to capture the
process of wealth generation and distribution, respectively, together providing
a complete ethical approach to wealth. Thus, a particular leader may enact a
particular mix of these two ideal leadership types to formulate a comprehensive
ethical approach to wealth.
The Great Cakkavatti King
Leadership
in the Hinayana Buddhist view may be idealized in the form of the Great Cakkavatti King or of the Bodhisattva ideal. While the former is
closer to the teachings of the Hinayana school of Buddhism
A
Cakkavatti king is established as
follows: "Those who have given alms, kept the precepts, and practiced the
meditation concerning loving kindness, when they die, take their rebirth in
heaven. But sometimes the result is that
they are born to be great rulers and kings who have splendor and majesty...this
person is one who is called a great Cakkavatti
king"(Reynolds and Reynolds, 1982:136). Already, the theme of merit
accumulating for a future benefit is evident.
It will be argued below that this theme can be viewed within the
acquistion of wealth.
Specifically,
acquiring merit and following the Dharma,
the Great Cakkavatti King practices the five precepts, modified for
the context of leadership.[1]
The types of meritous activity giving rise to the Cakkavatti status include giving alms, observing the precepts,
meditation, dedicating the benefit of one's merit to others, rejoicing in the
alms-giving of others, service to others, respect shown to elders, preaching
the Dhamma, listening to the
preaching of the Dhamma, and having
faith in the three jewels and in one's elders.[2]
In
general, the Cakkavatti king loves
each of his subjects equally, exerts authority honestly, and acts righteously
in accordance with the Dhamma(Reynolds
and Reynolds, 1982:148). The five
precepts as applied to leadership are as follows.
First,
"if anyone does evil of any kind you should not kill him; instead you
should teach him according to the Dhamma"(Reynolds
and Reynolds, 1982:148). Thus, thiis
ideal leader would not kill subjects such as criminals. If one were to break this precept, one would
suffer grief and trouble in future lives, and be subject to others desiring to
inflict harm.
Second,
"another kind of evil deed concerns the wealth and property of others that
is not given by its owner-such things rulers must never take! For another thing, in addition to not taking
them yourself, you must not have other people take them for you. Whoever is greedy, taking things that others
do not give to him, when he is born in hell, suffers grief and anguish for a
very long period of time"(Reynolds and Reynolds, 1982:149). For such a
person, a cruel nature, destitution, and theft of his or her things are likely
characteristics following from the karmic
law.
The
law of kamma, or karma, is "a law which structures reality such that dhammic and antidhammic actions always have a predictable effect in determining
one's future position in the sociocosmic hierarchy that constitutes ordinary samsaric reality"(Reynolds,
1990:66).
The
story of Jotika (the rich man), Bimbisara (the king), and Ajatasattu (the son
of the king), is relevant to this precept which regards the king's acquisition
of wealth. Ajatasattu pleads with his
father to seize the rich man's fortune: "The extensive treasures of this
great rich man are not appropriate for a rich man who dwells in our city. It is appropriate that we, who are the rulers
and kings, should seize these treasures and make them our own"(Reynolds
and Reynolds, 1982:196). The claim being
made here is that a king can acquire wealth by any means from any subject,
regardless of how the subject acquired his wealth.
King Bimhisara replies:
To
urge me to go with you to seize the treasures of this great man Jotika is not
right according to the way of the Dhamma. Why do I say that? The reason is that this
treasure was not generated by either your merit or mine. This treasure was generated because of the
merit of the great rich man Jotika when this great rich man made merit in his
previous lives. Thus the Lord Vissukamma came to create it for the great rich
man, and it wasn't obtained in any other way. Therefore it would not be
appropriate for us to seize it"(Reynolds and Reynolds, 1982:197).
Thus, ethical restrictions are
evident in the king's acquisition of wealth; not only must the king follow the
precepts, but he must respect such practices by his subjects.
Later
in the story, Ajatasattu, having killed his father, the king, tries to take
Jotika's wealth, yet he fails. Jotika
responds: "None of my
treasures...can be taken from me unless I give it"(Reynolds and Reynolds,
1982:198). This is so because Jotika had
acquired his fortune through merit in accord with the Dhamma, and the king was obliged to respect this acquisition.
The
third precept concerns sexuality.
Applied to rulers, this precept is specifically oriented to the act of
committing adultery with the wives of others.
Such an act would send the ruler to a hell of thorns and fire, after
which rebirth would occur as a human, during which time one would be attacked
by another.
Fourth,
"another kind of evil deed concerns lying- that is, saying things for
which there is no basis; such things you who are rulers must never
say!"(Reynolds and Reynolds, 1982:150).
Such an action will lead to anguish in hell, followed by rebirth as an
ugly, odorous person. Anyone wishing to
do him harm will succeed.
Fifth,
one should not drink liquor. Rulers
should not associate with each other for the purpose of drinking. If this precept is ignored, the ruler would
go to hell, followed by rebirth as a phi
s'u'a,
then as a mad dog, followed by rebirth
as an insane, ugly human, being inferior, not knowing right from wrong.
Besides these general
guidelines, specific policies are linked to the Cakkavatti king. For
example, such a king compensates well those who work for him. If they are assigned work, only an
appropriate amount should be assigned:
"Do not use them too much so that they are pushed beyond what they
are willing to do. If there are any
people who are elderly, do not use them-let them go as they will"(Reynolds
and Reynolds, 1982:151).
Such
a king should not worry about sharing his wealth with his royal family, yet he
should offer interest-free loans to the unemployed who want to start a
business. In addition, those who know
the Dhamma should be fed and
protected by the king.
In
regard to taxes, the amount collected should not exceed ten percent, or that
collected by the preceding king. Poor
people, as well as the profits of business should not be taxed(Reynolds,
1990:65). These policies seem reasonable, yet the inclusion of taxes per se
seems to conflict with the precept that the king should not take the wealth and
property of others unless they are freely given. Taxes are not freely given, and thus appear
inconsistent with the principles behind the Cakkavatti
king.
How,
then, does a Buddhist state fund its activities under such a king? The gem treasurer of the Cakkavatti king illustrates the ideal attitude of a subject of such
a king, which suggests how funds would be obtained:
"If
Your Highness wishes to have any amount of wealth and property may it please
Your Highness to call for it from me alone. I, the slave of the Buddha, will
myself gather everything and offer it to you. If Your Highness wishes to reward
Your Highness' subjects who are slaves and free men, I, the slave of the
Buddha, will gather whatever is needed and offer it to Your Highness. Let your Highness give according to your own
will and have no doubts"(Reynolds and Reynolds, 1982:168). [3]
Lastly, the Cakkavatti king must not speak too much. Accordingly:
"When
you judge the affairs of the common people..., do not just say this or that in
an offhanded way or just scold or beat them, but rather judge the affair
rightly and completely in accordance with the Dhamma. Thoroughly consider
the pattern of the affair from beginning to end and then judge with an honest
and unbiased mind"(Reynolds and Reynolds, 1982: 152).
Queen
Srimala and the Bodhisattva Ideal
The
Cakkavatti king represents one
Buddhist view of leadership and wealth which emphasizes the acquisition, rather
than distribution, of wealth. The Bodhisattva ideal is another such
representation, which, as a complement to the Cakkavatti king, focuses on the distribution of wealth. The essence of this ideal is altruism,
benevolence, and compassion. First, the Bodhisattva
concept will be discussed, after which it will be discussed in the context of
leadership and wealth.
The
term, Bodhisattva, literally means
'Being of Wisdom', and was first used to refer to previous incarnations of the
Buddha in which he gradually perfected himself by deeds of compassion and
self-sacrifice(de Bary, 1972:75). Later,
the term referred as well to future Buddhas(Maitreya).[4]
The
Siksasamuccaya depicts the Bodhisattva:
"All
creatures are in pain...all suffer from bad and hindering karma...All that mass of pain and evil karma I take in my own body...I take upon myself the burden of
sorrow; I resolve to do so; I endure it all...for I have resolved to save them
all. I must set them all free...I care not at all for my own
deliverance..."(de Bary, 1972:84).
Queen
Srimala fits the Bodhisattva ideal. She made ten vows applicable to leadership.[5] She vowed not to permit any
thought of violating morality, not to disrespect the teachers, not to allow
thoughts of anger and ill will toward sentient beings, and not to allow
thoughts of jealousy(A. Wayman and H. Wayman, 1974:64).
Further,
she vowed: "I shall not accumulate wealth for my own use, but shall deal
with it to assist the poor and friendless"(ibid, p. 64). She vowed to benefit the sentient beings, not
converting them for her own sake. Also,
"when in the future I observe sentient beings who are friendless,
trapped and bound, diseased, troubled,
poor and miserable, I shall not forsake them for a single moment until they are
restored. Lord, seeing them afflicted by
suffering, I shall liberate them from each of those sufferings; having
conferred goods upon them, I shall leave them"(ibid, p. 65).
The
'having conferred goods upon them' suggests that such a leader would not
accumulate great wealth, but would spend it on others in need. Moreover, the interests of the leader seem to
be in helping others, rather than in her own self-interest. This suggests that the emphasis here is on how
to distribute, rather than acquire, wealth- thus being a complement to the
acquisition-oriented theme in the Cakkavatti
ideal.
The
last two vows concern the Mayahana doctrine, the 'Illustrious Doctrine',
itself. The Queen vows to foster that
which supports the doctrine and destroy what is against it. Thus, it seems as if war or conflict in
general may be legitimate in this ideal type.
The tenth vow is simply not to forget the doctrine.
These
vows are linked to her three aspirations.
First, "by accumulating merit from bringing benefit to innumerable
sentient beings, may I comprehend the Illustrious Doctrine in all my
lives"(ibid, p. 67). Second, she
aspires to teach the Doctrine to the sentient beings. Lastly, "without regard to my body, life
force, or possessions, may I seek to protect and to uphold the Illustrious
Doctrine"(ibid, p. 68). Here are
indications again that accumulated possessions and her own interests are
de-emphasized, relative to higher principles such as compassion to suffering beings.
In
short, her aspirations are to embrace, teach, and explain the Mayahana
doctrine. The act of embracing has
special qualities: "that embracer
of the Illustrious Doctrine is himself the Illustrious Doctrine"(ibid, pl
72). As such, the person becomes the six
perfections, here viewed as a recipe for leadership.
First,
by the perfection of giving(dana),
other beings may be matured. According
to Reynolds(1990:72), "the dhammic
order of society and nature is supported, the non-attachment of the giver is
expressed and cultivated, and the merit of the giver is increased so that he or
she will enjoy even greater wealth in the future".
Second,
the perfection of morality(sila)
purifies the actions of one's body, speech, and mind. This brings 'dignified bearing', the
possession of good behavior and lawful resort, to sentient beings.
Third,
the perfection of forbearance(ksanti)
suggests that "if these beings scold, insult, or threaten him- he shows
not ill will but seeks to heal and thus to mature by the illustrious power of
forbearance"(ibid, p. 73). Again,
the sense of compassion presiding over one's own interest is a theme in this
ideal of the Bodhisattva.
Fourth,
the perfection of striving(virya) is
as follows: "He matures these beings by not having a torpid mind, not
being lazy, (but by) having great aspiration, and possessing great enterprise
of striving(ibid, p. 73, brackets added).
Fifth,
by the perfection of meditation(dhyana),
one develops an undisturbed mind, not being sidetracked from helping
others.
Sixth,
the perfection of insight(prajna)
permits one to respond confidently to questions about meaning as well as about
the arts and sciences. This seems
especially pertinent to leadership,as followers seem to look to their leaders
for meaning. In this ideal, meaning
would involve the merit of compassion for others above one's own interest.
These
general principles elicited by Queen Srimala can be seen in the life of
Sirisanghabodhi, a ruler of Ceylon
King
Sirisamghabodhi reigned for only two years, keeping the five precepts of
Hinayana Buddhism and the eight uposatha
(Buddhist Sabbath days) vows. His
compassion for other beings is evident in his kingship. Four episodes illustrate this quality. First, when some subjects were hurting due to
drought, he layed down on the ground, saying he would not get up until it
rained. When it rained, he got up. This story illustrates that the Bodhisattva leader will sacrifice of
himself to ease the suffering of others, such as was described in the case of
Queen Srimala.
Second,
on one occasion when he caught rebels, he let them go secretly, and burned
instead already dead bodies, such that his subjects would be put at ease
without any suffering on the part of the rebels. Such a leader is not concerned with the protection
of his own power, wealth, and position, but acts to aid not only his loyal
subjects, but the threatening rebels as well.
Third,
when a yakkha, a supernatural being,
known as Ratakkhi wanted to continue devouring the king's subjects,
Sirisamghabodhi said: "No other can I give up to thee; take thou me and
devour me"(Geiger, 1986:262).
Ratakkhi refused, however, and the king continued to live. This story indicates that the self-sacrifice
of such a king may be offered. In the
next story, it is offered and given, without being asked for or accepted by the
subject.
When
rebels came to attack the king's palace, Sirisamghabodhi left so as not to
promote suffering. He took only a water
strainer. A man on the road offered him
some food. In return, the king offered
the man his head, since the rebels had placed a price on it. When the man refused, Sirisamghabodhi died so
that the man could obtain the money for his head.
The
theme of generosity is also found in the cases of King Asoka and King
Vessantara. Asoka is said to have given
his possessions to the sangha, the
highest form of giving in Buddhism.
Vessantara, said to be the Buddha in his last life prior to his birth as
Gotama, gave up his kingdom, all his material wealth, and his wife and
children, thereby epitomizing the generosity of the Bodhisattva.[7]
Therefore,
the Bodhisattva ideal leader, such as
Queen Srimala, King Sirisamghabodhi, King Asoka, and King Vessantara, acts with
compassion, spending his wealth and effort to relieve sentient beings from
their suffering, even at the cost of self-sacrifice. Whereas the Great Cakkavatti King may accumulate wealth as long as it is done through
merit(emphasizing the merit), the Bodhisattva
king concentrates on giving up the wealth to help others. Hence, two ideals for leadership and wealth can
be taken from the Buddhist perspective.
The
Dhamma and Wealth
The third precept of the Cakkavatti king declares that it is an evil deed for an such an
ideal king to take another's wealth without it having been offered. Jotika
maintains that wealth gained by merit cannot be taken by a king. Finally, Queen Srimala maintains that one's
wealth ought to be spent in relieving the suffering of others. What is behind
these ethical principles pertaining to the acquisition and distribution of
wealth?
The
key to understanding the Buddhist stance on wealth is in considering the notion
of Dhamma, or Dharma, which "constitutes the structure and dynamics of all
reality", and is "the normative truth that establishes guidelines for
all forms of action"(Reynolds, 1190:61).
Dhamma is the teachings, or
law, of the Buddha that ties together 1) the nature of reality(sunyata-all things are in essence empty,
or void, and thus impermanent)- the 'is', and 2) proper
conduct(non-attachment)- the 'ought'. In
short, why be attached to anything, since everything is in essence empty and
impermanent? 'Ought' follows from 'is'.
According
to the Dhammapada, the world is like
a bubble- a mirage. Hence, it should not
be clung to. Moreover, "let no man
ever cleave to things that are pleasant or to those that are unpleasant. From pleasure comes grief, from grief comes
fear; he who is free from pleasure neither sorrows nor fears"(Babbitt,
1965:34). Thus, one should not become
attached to worldly items, such as wealth.
Yet, such practices can increase one's wealth.
As
suggested in the Cakkavatti ideal,
the Dhamma principles have "a
more or less positive valorization of wealth, including material resources,
monetary resources, goods, and services(Reynolds, 1990:62). Reynolds(1990:63) argues that adherence to
the principles is conducive to the production of wealth.
"The
actions commended to the monks for their own spiritual benefit constitute a
kind of pure behavior that, because of the unity of the religiomoral, the
societal and natural orders, also works to ensure the wealth of the community.
In societies in which the monks violate the strictures of the vinaya and fail to practice the path the
Buddha taught, group life will become fractitous, the rhythms of nature will
become unpredictable and destructive, and- as a part of the same antidhammic
process-wealth and prosperity will
dissappear" (Reynolds, 1990:64, italics added).
At
the microsocial context, such as the village, the dhammic activity of the
laity is also important. At the
macrosocial context, however, dhammic
actions are correlated with the actions of a good king. Specifically, if a ruler acts righteously, he
collects merit, thereby making society peaceful, stable, balanced, and
prosperous. The king's "dhammic actions
always lead to a higher status in the hierarchy of cosmic and social existence
and, therefore, to the possession and enjoyment of greater amounts of material
wealth"(Reynolds, 1990:67).
Thus
wealth is legitimate for those who perform dhammic activities.
Legitimate wealth accrues for the community as a whole if the king
performs such activities, as described in the ideal types above. It can now be understood why subjects, such
as the gem treasurer, would want to give some of their wealth to their king;
the king helped them acquire it due to his good actions.
So,
dhammic activity seems to lead to greater wealth via kammic law. Leadership has been shown to play a role in
this process in the macrosocial context.
Next, whether wealth leads to greater Dhamma will be considered.
This issue pertains directly to the Bodhisattva
notion of leadership.
According to Reynolds(1990:67):
"wealth may serve either as a vehicle for achieving greater adherence to dhammic norms or as a factor that inhibits such adherence". In general, Buddhists "have
traditionally maintained that those who earn their living without killing,
stealing, or lying facilitate the dhammic
ordering of society will be personally rewarded in accordance with the law of kamma"(Reynolds, 1990:71). Further,
the expenditure of wealth is held to be in line with the Dhamma as long as intoxicants are not used, and irresponsible or
wasteful expenditures are avoided(Reynolds, 1990).
At
low levels of wealth, the effect is argued to be positive, providing context
and substance for non-attachment, while at higher levels attachment or
non-attachment may be evoked.[8]
The optimal amount is held to be a moderate amount.
Such
a level is sufficient "to make the practice of the Buddhist path a
practical possibility at the same time that they are sufficiently aware of the
reality of suffering and death that they are motivated to undertake its rigors.
Thus, it is affirmed that whereas royalty may have the greatest amount of
enjoyment and pleasure, it is the people who enjoy a moderate level of wealth
and well-being who hold a position that is soteriologically the most
advantageous"(Reynolds, 1990:68).
This relative disadvantage of the king is
countered in the case of the Bodhisattva
king, who aspires to Buddhahood.
Despite
the compromise of an economic 'middle way', the key issue seems to be one's
stance toward one's wealth. "Wealth
always provides both an opportunity for a new expression and cultivation of
non-attachment and a temptation
toward the kind of antidhammic self-indulgence that leads to increased
entrapment in the web of worldly existence"(Reynolds, 1990:69).
It
seems that one's attitude, or character, toward the use of one's wealth
is more at issue than the level of wealth in determining whether attachment or
non-attachment will be evoked.[9]
For
example, it is stated in the Dhammapada
that for happiness, one should call nothing one's possession. Further, "no sufferings befall the man
who is not sunk in self, and who calls nothing his own"(Babbitt, 1965:36).
This does not mean that one should not have any possessions; the key is in the
word 'call', which signifies a certain perspective of non-attachment. This view is apparent in the conception of
the wise man in the Dhammapada:
"If, whether for his own sake or for the sake of others, a man wishes
neither for a son nor for wealth, nor for lordship, and if he does not wish for
his own success by unfair means, then he is good, wise and
upright"(Babbitt, 1965:14).
Considering
the role of dhamma in the process of gaining wealth, and vice
versa, Reynolds(1990:73) concludes:
"Those
who seek to establish the legitimacy of their wealth must convince the
community that it has been acquired by virtue of meritorious activity done in
the past and that it has been more immediately earned in ways that are in
accord with the precepts...The possessors of wealth must convince the community
that they have achieved a level of non-attachment and generosity that ensures
that they will spend what they have acquired in accord with the dhammic norms."
This quote ties together the
ethics of acquiring and distributing wealth.
This tie can also be made within a comprehensive framework of Buddhist
leadership which includes the two complementary types.
Conclusion:
Leadership and Wealth
Two
ideal types for leadership have been described from a Buddhist
perspective. The Cakkavatti king follows the five precepts, adapted to
leadership. In regard to wealth, this
king does not take the income or wealth of his subjects unless it is freely
given. Because wealth is legitimately
earned only if done so in line with the Dhamma,
such a king would likely take from his subjects who earned their wealth
immorally, by means such as lying or stealing, being attached to their income.
The
Bodhisattva king epitomizes
compassion for all suffering beings.
Such compassion lends itself to generosity. Thus, the model is one of giving of one's own
wealth, regardless of one's own self-interest. Wealth can thus lead to greater Dhamma; non-attachment is gained in the
spirit of compassion and generosity for another.
While
the ethics of the Cakkavatti king seems
to be more attuned to the merit of acquiring wealth via the five precepts, that
of the Bodhisattva king seems to
emphasize ethical means of distributing one's wealth via compassion.
Together, these two leadership ideals of
Buddhism span the entire process of wealth-acquisition and distribution. They provide a comprehensive model of the
ethics of Buddhist leadership and wealth.
A leader could appropriate these types, mixing them together to create a
unique ethical stance to wealth.
References
Buddhist Birth
Stories(Jataka Tales)
, (T. Rhys Davids, trans.) NY(1977):
Arno Press.
de
Bary, W. The Buddhist Tradition in India , China
and Japan
The Dhammapada (I.
Babbitt, trans.) NY(1965): New Directions Books.
Dika Malai Deva
Sutta (R. Lovin
and F. Reynolds, trans.) Bangkok
Gunawardana,
R.A. Robe and Plough: Monasticism and
Economic Interest in Early
Medieval Sri Lanka Tucson(1979): The
University of Arizona
The Lion's Roar of Queen
Srimala: A Buddhist Scripture on the Tathagatagarbha
Theory (A.
Wayman and H. Wayman, trans.) NY(1974): Columbia University
The Mahavamsa (W. Geiger ,
trans.) New Delhi
Reynolds,
F. "Ethics and Wealth in Theravada Buddhism: A Study of Comparative Religious Ethics"
in Sizemore, R. F. and
Swearer, D. (eds.) Ethics, Wealth, and Salvation: A Study
in Buddhist
Social Ethics Columbia , SC.(1990): University
Swearer,
D. "A New Look at Prince Vessantara" Journal of the
National
Research Council of Thailand
Three Worlds
According to King Ruang: A Thai Buddhist
Cosmology (F. Reynolds and M. Reynolds,
trans.)
[1]The
five Hinayana precepts are non-killing, non-stealing, no promiscious sex, and
no intoxicants. Plus, three additional
precepts are held on Uposatha, or
holydays: no untimely meals, no frivolous amusements, and no use of high seats or beds(Reynolds and
Reynolds, 1982).
[2]The
three jewels include the Buddha, the Dhamma,
and the Sangha(monestary).
[3]In
the section on wealth below, it will be explained in detail why a subject would
have such an attitude.
[4]The
perfections of a bodhisattva are:
generosity(dana), moral conduct(sila), patience(ksanti), courage or energy(virya),
meditation(dhyana), and wisdom(prajna).
These are the Paramitas. Additional perfections are: skill in knowing
the right means to lead individual beings to salvation(upayakausalya), determination(pranidhana),
strength(bala), and knowledge(jnana) (de Bary, 1972:84).
[5]The
first five vows are Hinayanian and the second five are Mahayanian.
[6]Other
rulers of Ceylon
such as Buddhadasa(337-365) led the life of a Bodhisattva. In addition,
Aggabodhi I (571-604) and Sena I (833-853) aspired to Buddhahood(Gunawardana,
1979:173).
[7]A
brief account of Vessantara is found in Reynolds(1990:70). Another account is in Swearer(1978) and Rhys
Davids(1977).
[8]The
effect of attachment as the amount of wealth increases is depicted in a story
in the Phra Malai Sutta. Before the coming of Matteya, the future Buddha, society evolves to a zenith of wealth
and well-being. When the humans forget
reality, becoming attached to their condition, suffering increases until the
arrival of Matteya(see Lovin and
reynolds(1971).
[9]Reynolds(1990:69),
too, is critical of the economic 'middle way' solution: "Despite such Theravada efforts to delineate and
symbolize an economic middle way, the problematic relationship between the
possession of wealth and further dhammic
activitiy has never been fully resolved."
